Posting my Nature of Science IA - Writing Wednesday
Hello everybody and welcome back to another blog post,
As many of you will already know, as part of the International Baccalaureate, I studied Nature of Science which was a subject that combined elements of biology, chemistry, and physics, alongside a deeper analyses of the scientific method. For the Internal Assessment (coursework), we had to construct our own essay question based on a topic of our choice. I really enjoyed learning about the Miller-Urey experiment in class so I decided to write about this and frame my question into the wider context of the origin of life. In this essay, therefore, I discuss the value of the Miller-Urey experiment, which was carried out in the 1960s, and I also cover if the experiment, based on my findings, significantly changed the way scientists perceive the origins of life. I know that there is a lot of scientific jargon in this but I've subheaded sections for your clarity. I hope you enjoy this read and let me know what you guys think in the comments below!
Did the Miller-Urey experiment create a paradigm shift in the way scientists understand the origin of life?
Introduction:
Stanley Miller
and Harold Urey’s Miller-Urey experiment pioneered the way scientists understood
and considered the origins of life. Through their experiment, Miller and Urey
were able to provide evidence to support a molecular origin of life, granting
the first steppingstone for scientists to understand one of biology’s most
unexplored questions; where did life begin? The two scientists carefully
preserved their findings in sealed vials and scientific papers, to aid further
research into the field of study. However, later observations of the results
produced in the Miller-Urey experiment, revealed that there were gaps in the
original experiment that had the potential to discredit Miller and Urey’s
hypothesis. This led to future scientists modifying the experiment and
supporting opposing possible explanations for the origins of life.
A paradigm
shift, as stated by the philosopher of science Thomas Khun in 1962, is “a
fundamental change in approach or underlying assumptions” [AB1]
The original consensus of the origin of life and the
Miller-Urey experiment:
Many
individuals have made different claims into the origins of life, but it was not
until the 20th century when an official scientific consensus on this
topic began to be developed. The oldest beliefs on the origins of life were
viewed from a religious perspective, with many people in ancient history
believing that the world was divinely created. It was ideas such as creationism
that first dominated people’s understanding of the topic. The creationists were
a group of Christians who believed that life, nature, and culture was of divine
creation and was therefore made by God.[AB3] The Book of Genesis recounts how God created the world,
the plants, and the animals in a period of six days
In 1952, Stanley
Miller, supervised by Harold Urey, at the University of Chicago, carried out an
experiment where they attempted to simulate the conditions of early Earth to
see if the conditions provided the mechanism for organic molecules to form. Figure
1 demonstrates the system used by Miller and Urey. In their experiment, water was
heated in a flask to mimic the ocean being heated by the sun. The water vapour
that was produced as a result was combined with the gases (methane, hydrogen,
and ammonia) in a connecting flask, creating their artificial atmosphere. The
gases were stimulated with electrical sparks using electrodes to simulate
lighting, and the new gas molecules were condensed in a cooling tube so that
they could be collected into a primordial soup or the artificial ocean
Nevertheless, in 1952, Miller and Urey’s work seemed to be a pioneering experiment on the study of the origin of life as it was the first experiment to highlight a potential molecular origin for life. Some scientists such Jeffrey Bada and Eric Parker have argued that the Miller-Urey experiment caused a paradigm shift in the field of prebiotic chemistry as it radically changed how essential concepts (on the origin of life) were understood or framed. This report will explore a variety of different scientific experiments on the origin of life to see if this judgement is correct.
Parker and Bada’s modifications of the Miller-Urey
experiment:
The main criticism
made by scientists such as of [AB10] the
Miller-Urey experiment was that the reducing gases that were used in the experiment
(H2, H2O, CH4, and NH3), [AB11] would not have
been the most common gases that were found in the atmosphere of early Earth. Instead,
rock analysis suggests that Earth’s early atmosphere would have been mainly comprised
of weakly reducing gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen
(N2), as well as a small percentage of the four gases that Miller
and Urey used in their original experiment. Doctor Scott M. Huse, author of
“The Collapse of Evolution” (p.153) said, “The concentrations of methane and
ammonia were carefully selected to ensure the production of organic molecules.
There is no evidence to suggest the Earth’s atmosphere was so characterized.”
Despite the
disappointing findings, Miller can be credited on the thoroughness by which he
was able to record their results and archive the components of their experiments.
The role of a scientist when carrying out experimentation is to make the data
clear and available to other researchers. The data, which is then stored in
databases, can be subsequently reviewed in the objective view of another
scientist. In the case of Jeffrey Bada and Eric Parker, it was then easy for them
to review Miller’s work and apply their modifications because Miller made a
conscious effort to preserve the data and results of their experiments. Bada
and Parker’s own findings on the Miller-Urey experiment were placed into the
peer-reviewed journal “Primordial synthesis of amines and amino acids in a 1958
Miller H2S-rich spark discharge experiment”, under the Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. Under this
organisation, it was checked by anonymous, unbiased scientists. [AB14] As well as
this, the paper was cited a total of 147 times by other researchers, according
to the PNAS. This suggests that it is a reliable [AB15] source of
information for this investigation.
Upon reviewing
Miller’s 1983 experiment, Bada had discovered that nitrates, which destroyed
the amino acids, had formed as a result of the chemical reactions that were
taking place. The nitrates were also turning the water acidic, preventing the
production of amino acids. To resolve this, Bada added iron and carbonate bases
(minerals that would have been present on primitive Earth), to the experiment, to
neutralise the nitrates and the acidic solution
As well as
this, Parker showed that the Miller-Urey experiment was a lot more valuable to
scientists than people had originally thought. It can often be easy for
scientists to miss important findings, due to the limitations of their time and
for Miller and Urey, it was particularly difficult for them to understand the
significance of their results because they did not have the technology that was
sophisticated enough to obtain this knowledge. However, the recent growth in
computing power and sensor technology, has allowed scientists to revisit past
work to check the accuracy of the results. Looking through Miller’s past
experiments, Parker found an archived set of results from an experiment that
was conducted in 1958, where the gases CH4, NH3, and CO2,
combined with H2S, were used to simulate Earth’s early atmosphere.
The paper chromatography methods that Miller was originally using could only
detect a limited number of organic molecules. However, Parker applied a more
modern technique through using high-performance liquid chromatography-UV
fluorescence detection. With this method, Parker was able to detect the
presence of 23 amino acids, as well as 4 amines from Miller’s 1958 silent
discharge experiment
There are 20 amino acids that are essential for life. They are proteinogenic, meaning that they make up the genetic code of all living organisms. When analysing the graph of Miller's results from his 1958 silent discharge experiment, 10 of the essential amino acids: Alanine, Glycine, Serine, Threonine, Aspartic acid, Valine, Glutamic acid, Methionine, Isoleucine and Leucine, were found in the data. Although not all the essential amino acids were detected, the majority were still present, suggesting that the Miller-Urey experiments were pioneering for scientists studying the origins of life because the results proved to be more significant than originally expected.
Through
observing Miller’s past experiments, Bada was able to apply the correct set of
gases and minerals to the Miller-Urey experiment and achieve the same results
as the original experiment. As well as this, Parker was able to show that there
were more amino acids and amines in the 1958 silent discharge experiment, than
initially recorded by Miller. Bada and Parker’s experiments and analyses are
one piece of evidence to suggest that the Miller-Urey experiment did create a
paradigm shift in the way that scientists understand the origin of life. It shows
that the method used by Miller and Urey was fundamentally correct as it was
still able to produce the organic molecules, with the correct combination of
gases and minerals, and 5 more of the essential amino acids needed for life
were detected in one of Miller’s original set of results.
Formation of nucleobases in a Miller-Urey reducing
atmosphere:
In a recent
study, a group of Czech scientists had attempted to highlight the significance
of the original Miller-Urey experiment. The group of scientists had identified
that the main issue to do with the original Miller-Urey experiment was that the
gases that were used in the experiment were considered “too reducing”
Instead of
using a more complex mixture of reducing gases such as H2, H2O,
CH4, and NH3, the scientists used a mixture of simple
reducing gases which consisted of NH3 + CO and H2O
The[AB22] difference in
gases combined with the extra energy source, was not only able to produce amino
acids but also formamide and hydrogen cyanide (HCN). In the past, experiments
had suggested that formamide and HCN, at high temperatures under UV light, had
served as intermediate stages in the creation of RNA nucleobases, the building
blocks of RNA and DNA
It is because
of scientific collaboration that the Miller-Urey experiment could be clarified.
The global interchange of information has allowed the Czech scientists to
review and apply a different perspective to the experiment, and thus exemplify
its significance. Although the Czech scientists had made some minor
modifications to the original experiment, the process had largely remained the
same because a source of energy was still applied to a mixture of reducing
gases and a mixture of organic molecules were created. Furthermore, the results
of this experiment were higher yielding which implied that the Miller-Urey
experiment was a lot more significant to scientists than people had originally
thought at the time. Nick Lane, Professor of Evolutionary Biochemistry in the
Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment at the University College
London said, “Amino acids are old hat and are a million miles from life.”
However, the fact that formamide and HCN, specialised organic molecules that
aid in the formation of RNA nucleobases, were created using a similar method to
that of the original experiment, showed that the Miller-Urey experiment
pioneered scientist’s understanding of the origin of life. The Czech study is
yet another piece of evidence to suggest that the Miller-Urey experiment might
have created a paradigm shift in the way scientists understood the origin of
life because they proved that the process outlined by the experiment formed the
fundamental basis of the study into the origin of life.
Hydrothermal vents in the production of organic molecules:
As Jeffrey Bada
and Eric Parker had analysed, although a reducing atmosphere that was composed
of H2, H2O, CH4, and NH3 was used
in the Miller-Urey experiment, rock analysis now suggests that the atmosphere
of early Earth was primarily made up of a more neutral combination of
carbon-rich gases. Bada had highlighted the importance of minerals, such as
iron and carbonate, in neutralising the acidity of the solution produced and
allowing organic molecules to form as a result. This was how Bada was able to
produce amino acids in an atmosphere of weakly reducing gases that were made up
of primarily carbon dioxide and nitrogen. However, astrobiologists have now
formulated a new potential origin for life and that is hydrothermal vents on
the ocean floor, that are created when geothermically-heated water escapes from
a crack in the oceanic crust
Scientists spend
a considerable amount of time reading the published results of other
scientists, seeing what they can objectively bring to the experiment that the
original scientists did not include. The growth of computing power has allowed
scientists to derive new understandings of certain areas of science. With the
advent of modern technology, scientists are now able to use powerful sensor
technology to detect the rock minerals inside hydrothermal vents and analyse
their significance in the study into the origins of life.
Scientist,
Lauren White, at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, alongside her supervisor,
JPL scientist, Michael Russel and the rest of her colleagues, created an
experiment to try and determine if hydrothermal vents could have been a
potential source of life. This particular study into the origins of life is
reliable because the findings were placed into a peer-reviewed journal, where
it was checked by anonymous, unbiased scientists. This makes it a reliable
source of information for this investigation.[AB26]
In their
experiment, the team of scientists brought together hydrogen-rich water (to
simulate the water that escaped the hydrothermal vents), seawater enriched with
carbon dioxide, as well as a few minerals that would have been present in the
environment at the time, to see if any organic molecules could form
The results of
the experiment were not the amino acids that Miller and Urey were able to
create in their experiment, but a prerequisite to these complex organic
molecules. In their resulting solution, the scientists had found formate and
trace amounts of methane
Furthermore,
although the sources of energy and the elements of White’s experiment were
different to that of the Miller-Urey experiment, the process that led to the
eventual creation of organic molecules, had remained largely the same because a
hydrous mix of inorganic compounds reacting together with an energy source to
create organic molecules. This showed that the system outlined by the
Miller-Urey experiment was fundamental as it was used as a basis for other
experiments in the study for the origin of life. The fact the Miller-Urey experiment
not only proved that the origin of life could be studied in the laboratory setting
but was also replicated in alternate forms by other scientists, suggests that the
experiment did create a paradigm shift as it radically changed the way that scientists
“framed and understood” the “essential concepts” of the origin of life.
The Panspermia theory and the Murchison Meteorite:
It has been
argued that the most contrasting theory to that of the Miller-Urey experiment, in
the study of the origin of life, is the Panspermia theory. The Panspermia
hypothesis suggested that the “seeds” of life, which were already embedded in
the universe, were transported to Earth via extra-terrestrial forces
The Miller-Urey
experiment explored the possibility of life beginning on a terrestrial level,
with inorganic molecules found on Earth, reacting together to make organic
molecules, the first building blocks of life. However, the Panspermia hypothesis
provided an alternative view to the experiment, that life could have begun on
an extra-terrestrial level, with amino acids being transported from space to
Earth via comets, asteroids, meteorites, and interstellar dust particle. Most
scientists believed in the Panspermia theory because the Miller-Urey experiment
produced a mix of organic molecules that were still not diverse enough to
create life at Earth’s current level of complexity. Also taking into
consideration the age of the Earth, some scientists speculate that DNA or
molecular based life, as depicted by the Miller-Urey experiment, could have
evolved within the Earth’s lifespan. Therefore[AB28] , Earth may
have needed an external source to create the complex organisms that can be seen
today
In 1969, a
meteorite exploded in the atmosphere just above Murchison, Victoria in
Australia
This meteorite
was significant because a chemical analysis of the rock showed that it carried
over 70 different types of amino acids, the building blocks of life. Dr. John
Lovering at the University of Melbourne had detected a strange smell coming
from one of the sealed tubes that contained a fragment of the meteorite,
recalling the odour to be of a similar smell to methylated spirits. He
concluded that the meteorite was a rare carbonaceous chondrite, the only type
of meteorite that could carry organic molecules.
Francis Crick
and British chemist Leslie Orgel proposed the bold hypothesis that these
organic molecules were purposefully transported to Earth by intelligent
extra-terrestrial organisms, since it was previously said that life could have
emerged twice within the evolution of the universe
Eric Parker’s
chemical analysis of the samples from Miller’s 1958 experiment, detected the
presence of 23 amino acids, as well as 4 amines, far more than the 5 that
Miller had originally detected. However, the fact that 70 amino acids were
found on the Murchison meteorite suggests extra-terrestrial parameters, if they
were not the singular origin of life, could have helped to provide a more
diverse mixture of amino acids, leading to the creation of more complex
organisms.
However, the Panspermia
theory, as represented by the Murchison meteorite, still does not discredit the
Miller-Urey experiment. It is still possible that the amino acids found on the
Murchison meteorite could have still been created through a process that is
similar to the one outlined by the Miller-Urey experiment. Inorganic molecules
that were originally found on the meteorite would have been exposed to the UV
light in space and may have therefore reacted together to make organic
molecules like amino acids. This still follows the process outlined by the
Miller-Urey experiment that a source of energy allows inorganic molecules to
react together to make organic molecules like amino acids. This proves how
influential the Miller-Urey experiment was in the study of the origin of life.
Conclusion:
The scientific
study into the origins of life did not happen until the beginning of the 20th
century because for most scientists, the origin of life was too broad and
complex of a study, to analyse within the confines of a laboratory. Hence why,
before the advent of scientific ideas such as the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis (which
in turn initiated the Miller-Urey experiment), most ordinary people looked at
the origins of life from a very creationist perspective because it supported
their view of the world. The only other scientists who attempted to deviate
from the creationist view, were people like biologist Francis Crick and chemist
Leslie Orgel, who provided an alternative perspective from their observations,
through the Panspermia Theory. However, few ultimately believed in this
hypothesis because the chances of it being true were sufficiently low. To
prevent a bias of opinion, most scientists question all information before
choosing to accept the validity of the information. They adopt a sceptical
attitude towards claims, and they suspend all judgement until they have good
reason to believe a claim to be true or false. In the case of the claims
delivered by Francis Crick and Leslie Orgel, despite generally being credible
scientists, many found reason to reject their arguments. Hence, the Miller-Urey
experiment was the test that presided that view.
From my
research, I can deduce that the Miller-Urey experiment did have a significant
impact on the way modern prebiotic explanations and experiments are either
framed or carried out today. Both Parker and Bada’s experiment, as well as the
Czech study, proved that the Miller-Urey experiment was still accurate because even
with a carbon-rich and less reducing artificial atmosphere, complex organic
molecules such as amino acids and RNA nucleobases had formed. Parker, Bada, and
the Czech scientists used experimentation to obtain evidence in the form of
data. The data and the outcomes of these experiments were used as further
evidence, supporting the Miller-Urey experiment. This strengthened the argument
put forth by Miller and Urey, suggesting that the scientists did create a
paradigm shift in our understanding of the origin of life.[AB30]
Although White’s
hydrothermal vent experiment and the Panspermia theory proposed a different
origin of where life began, however contrasting the theories were, they still
do not disprove the Miller-Urey experiment. The mechanism of inorganic
compounds combining through an energy source to make more complex organic molecules,
could still have occurred in the hydrothermal vents or whilst the meteorites
that collided with Earth were still in space. This only strengthened the
argument proposed by Miller and Urey. The role of a scientist is to carry out
experiments and place their findings into databases to make them available to
other researchers. It has become clear from my research that Miller’s
meticulous storing of evidence and data, has allowed scientists such as Parker
and White to build upon the original experiment accurately, showing to the rest
of the scientific community that the experiment was significant in launching
the scientific study into the origins of life.
As stated in
the beginning, Thomas Khun’s definition of a paradigm shift is “a fundamental
change in approach or underlying assumptions.” The studies that were conducted
by Bada and Parker, the Czech scientists, and White, all attempted to challenge
some of the inaccuracies that were present in the Miller-Urey experiment, but
all came to the similar conclusion that the system that was outlined by the
experiments, remained fundamentally correct. This showed that the experiment did
create paradigm shift in the field of prebiotic chemistry because its validity
reveals that organic molecules could be extrapolated from the inorganic
chemicals that were present on primordial Earth, overturning underlying
assumptions that this was not possible.
My overall
research has been limited because the origin of life is still a complex field
of study that scientists still do not have all the answers to. The Miller-Urey
experiment outlined how inorganic molecules became complex organic molecules,
but it still did not provide a detailed enough answer to explain how DNA was
eventually formed from these complex organic molecules, nor did it outline how
cells eventually evolved within the timeline of life. Thus, the idea of self-replicating
RNA has become a new field of study that scientists are continuing to investigate.
For the Miller-Urey experiment to be considered valid and significant, it would
have to have formed the basis of the subsequent bio-chemical processes that led
to the creation of life as it exists today but because the origin of life is so
big and complex, as more research into this topic is still being conducted, it
was difficult to determine this. This has meant that my research into the
Miller-Urey experiment and the origins of life, has been limited because I had
to start by focusing mainly on the early stages of the overall process. I would
have to do further research into the topic to synthesise the main scientific consensus
regarding the next stages in life’s evolution. However, this does not
completely deny the significance of the Miller-Urey experiment as the results
from the subsequent experiments that were later conducted by other scientists,
suggest that the Miller-Urey experiment did have valid outcomes and initiated
the scientific question regarding the origins of life overall. This shows that the
Miller-Urey experiment was indeed very influential.
In the future I
would hope to improve my investigation into the origins of life and the
validity of the Miller-Urey experiment by exploring the current scientific
research behind the evolution of more complex organic molecules which form the
foundation of living organisms, to determine if the research supports or
challenges the idea that abiogenesis provided a logical starting point to life.
My initial research for this paper primarily focused on the experiments that
were conducted by other scientists after and in relation to the Miller-Urey
experiment, which enabled me to better understand how correct the judgements
from the original set of experiments were, thus helping me to determine the
significance of the experiment. Although I had to gather some of my contextual
information regarding the history of the origin of life from Wikipedia pages, I
was able to incorporate a lot of scientific journals from other qualified
scientists within my paper as well, which enabled me to come to an accurate
conclusion regarding the significance of the Miller-Urey experiment. However,
if I were to explore the origin of life topic more deeply, I would also review
papers on topics such as the DNA theory and self-replicating RNA, to see if any
parallels between this and the Miller-Urey experiment can be drawn on a broader
scale. Then it can be more accurately deduced
as to whether the Miller-Urey experiment was significant enough to create a paradigm
shift because if it did provide a logical starting point to life and the creation
of DNA, it can begin to explain how the organisms that exist today, eventually
came to be.
To be involved
in science is to be involved in a community of inquiry, with common principles
and methodologies. Through Parker and Bada, the Czech scientists, and White’s
further research into the Miller-Urey experiment, using similar methodologies,
these scientists were able to add to people’s knowledge on the origin of life. Although
there were inaccuracies with the Miller-Urey experiment, the scientists
discovered that the fundamental process that was outlined by the Miller-Urey
experiment was still correct. The fact that modern scientists choose to support
abiogenesis as the first steppingstone for further research, suggests that the
Miller-Urey experiment was very influential in the field of prebiotic
chemistry. This suggests that the Miller-Urey experiment did in fact create a
paradigm shift in the way that scientists understand the origin of life.[AB31]
Bibliography
Jeffrey
L. Bada, E. T. (2011, February 14). Primordial
synthesis of amines and amino acids in a 1958 Miller H2S-rich spark discharge
experiment. Retrieved from Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences of
the United States of America: https://www.pnas.org/content/108/14/5526
BBC. (2009, June 2). Creationism and intelligent
design. Retrieved from BBC:
https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/beliefs/creationism_1.shtml
Bhattacharjee, S. (2013, January 7). Urey Miller
experiment | origin of life.
Condie, K. C. (2005). Science Direct.
Retrieved from Hydrothermal Vent:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/hydrothermal-vent
Daily, S. (2008, October 17). 'Lost' Miller-Urey
Experiment Created More Of Life's Building Blocks. Retrieved from Science
Daily:
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081016141411.htm#:~:text=In%20his%20May%2015%2C%201953,and%20two%20versions%20of%20alanine.
Ferus, M. (2017, April 10 ). Formation of
nucleobases in a Miller-Urey reducing atmosphere. Retrieved from
Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America:
https://www.pnas.org/content/114/17/4306
Fizbit, F. (2008, April 1). What is the theory of
panspermia? Retrieved from Astronomy:
https://astronomy.com/news-observing/ask%20astro/2008/04/what%20is%20the%20theory%20of%20panspermia
Fox, D. (2007, March 28th). Primordial Soup’s On:
Scientists Repeat Evolution’s Most Famous Experiment. Retrieved from
Scientific American:
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/primordial-soup-urey-miller-evolution-experiment-repeated/
Huse, S. M. (1986). The Collapse of Evolution.
Baker Publishing Group.
Joseph, D. A. (2017). Science Direct.
Retrieved from Hydrothermal Vent:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/hydrothermal-vent
Kaufman, M. (2017, June 23). In Search of
Panspermia. Retrieved from NASA: https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/news/in-search-of-panspermia/
Koberlein, B. (2015, April 7). It Came From Outer
Space. Retrieved from Brian Koberlein:
https://briankoberlein.com/blog/it-came-from-outer-space/
Kuhn, T. (1962).
Lazcano, A. (2015). Primordial Soup.
Retrieved from Encyclopedia of Astrobiology:
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44185-5_1275
Matson, J. (2010, February 15). Meteorite That
Fell in 1969 Still Revealing Secrets of the Early Solar System. Retrieved
from Scientific American: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/murchison-meteorite/
NASA. (2020, April 15). Retrieved from Simulating
Early Ocean Vents Shows Life’s Building Blocks Form Under Pressure:
https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/simulating-early-ocean-vents-shows-lifes-building-blocks-form-under-pressure
Orlic, C. (2013, January 9). The Origins of
Directed Panspermia. Retrieved from Scientific American: 2013
Packham, C. (2017, April 21). Researchers produce
all RNA nucleobases in simulated primordial Earth conditions. Retrieved
from Phys.Org: https://phys.org/news/2017-04-rna-nucleobases-simulated-primordial-earth.html
Pray, L. A. (2008). Discovery of DNA Structure
and Function: Watson and Crick. Retrieved from Nature:
https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/discovery-of-dna-structure-and-function-watson-397/
Smith, D. U. (2019, November 20). The Murchison
meteorite. Retrieved from Museums Victoria:
https://museumsvictoria.com.au/article/the-murchison-meteorite/
Urey, H. (1962, January 4). Christian Science
Monitor.
Wikipedia. (2001, Novemebr 27). Abiogenesis.
Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis
Wikipedia. (2001, October 2). Book of Genesis.
Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis
Wikipedia. (2001, September 24). Occam's razor. Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor
What do you guys think? What is the origin of life? Do you think the Miller-Urey experiment was accurate? Let me know in the comments below and I'll be sure to reply to them. I ♡ hearing from you!
Comments
Post a Comment
Thanks for leaving your comments! I really enjoy reading your positive and constructive messages. They really make my day! 💜